Perfectionism

Perfectionism has increasingly been studied as a multidimensional personality trait over the last decade. Varying concepts of perfectionism have been proposed, most often regarding perfectionism as a maladaptive trait (Blatt 1995). These notions of perfectionism rise from the idea that it may stem from neurotic behavior. Research, using a variety of perfectionism measures, provides support for this claim: Perfectionism has been associated with depressive symptoms (Chang and Sanna 2001; Enns and Cox 1999; Hewitt and Flett 1991a 1993; Joiner and Schmidt 1995; Lynd-Stevenson and Hearne 1999), greater negative affectivity (one’s emotional state) and less positive affectivity (Chang 2000; Frost et al. 1993), low self-efficacy (Hart et al. 1998), increased suicidal ideation (Hamilton and Schweitzer 2000; Hewitt et al. 1994; Hewitt et al. 1997), and greater social anxiety (Juster et al. 1996; Saboonchi et al. 1999). Others have suggested perfectionism can be “normal” rather than “neurotic,” a distinction made by Hamachek (1978), who suggests that individuals can be “satisfied” (Slade 1982) with their performance and engage in “positive striving” (Frost et al. 1993) accompanied by positive effect and increased self-esteem.

Two multidimensional measures of perfectionism are predominant in the current literature (Frost et al. 1990; Hewitt and Flett 1991). These measures have been developed from numerous studies of clinical populations, which indicate perfectionism is widely associated with numerous psychopathologies (Terry-Short et al. 1995) and maladaptive behaviors, as indicated above. Hewitt and Flett’s (1991a) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) assesses perfectionism as a phenomenon consisting of three dimensions: self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially-prescribed perfectionism. Self-oriented perfectionism is defined as the tendency for an individual to set and seek high self-standards of performance. Other-oriented perfectionism describes the tendency for an individual to expect that others should or will be perfect in their performance, and socially prescribed perfectionism refers to the tendency for an individual to believe that others expect perfection from him or her (Hewitt and Flett 1991b).

The second predominant multidimensional perfectionism measure is the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS) (Frost et al. 1990). Frost et al. define perfectionism as a variable involving excessive self-criticism associated with higher personal standards, concern over meeting social expectations, and excessive focus on organization and neatness, and doubts about the effectiveness of one’s actions.

Perfectionism: Link to Negative Outcomes, Including Depressive Symptoms

In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4^th edition (American Psychiatric Association 1994), major depression is defined by depressed mood, markedly diminished interest or pleasure, significant weight loss or gain, insomnia or hypersomnia, psychomotor agitation, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness or guilt, diminished ability to think or concentrate, and recurrent thoughts of death. Depressive symptoms can be experienced in varying degrees, ranging from mild responses to negative life experiences, to severe, disabling, and persistent distortions of one’s internal and external world. Depressive symptoms are complex, and many believe that depression results from severe disruptions in one’s interpersonal relations or from serious threats to one’s self-esteem and feelings of self worth.

Numerous studies using the MPS point to a positive correlation between depressive symptoms and levels of perfectionism (Hill et al. 1997; Lynd-Stevenson and Hearne 1999). In addition, the FMPS has also demonstrated significant correlations between perfectionism and depressive symptoms (Enns and Cox 1999; Frost et al. 1993). Perfectionism may also interfere with treating those suffering from clinical depression; findings indicate perfectionism hinders the successful treatment of depressive symptoms (Blatt et al. 1995; Blatt et al. 1998), regardless of the method of therapy used. These modalities include cognitive therapy, interpersonal psychotherapy, and varieties of drug treatment.

The three different domains of perfectionism, as measured by the MPS, are differentially related as potential correlates of depressive symptoms, which are often measured by the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) (Beck et al. 1961). The strongest association is usually found between socially prescribed perfectionism and depressive symptoms (Enns and Cox 1999; Flett et al. 1991; Hewitt and Flett 1991a; Hewitt et al. 1996; Wyatt and Gilbert 1998), although consistent correlations between depressive symptoms and self-oriented perfectionism are frequently found as well. Individuals with socially prescribed perfectionism perceive that external sources impose standards upon them. These perfectionist individuals believe they must maintain unrealistic expectations that others have placed on them, and these are necessary for acceptance and approval (Frost et al. 1990; Hewitt and Flett 1991a, 1991b). These stressors appear to be out of the individual’s control, causing a sense of failure, and potentially depressive symptoms.

Self-oriented perfectionism is also associated with depressive symptoms. Like socially prescribed perfectionism, self-oriented perfectionism places an emphasis on the individual and his or her achievements. Studies by Hewitt and Flett (1991a) indicate excessive self-criticism, unrealistic expectations, and feelings of worthlessness can lead to depressive symptoms or dysphoria, a condition of persistent depressive feelings. In a 1993 study of 51 unipolar depressed patients and 94 mixed psychiatric patients, Hewitt and Flett also found self-oriented perfectionism predicts depressive symptoms in an achievement-stress context, and the stressor affects the relationship between the depression and the specific type of perfectionism. Furthermore, a second study of 121 patients with either unipolar or bipolar depression indicated self-oriented perfectionism interacts with achievement stress. Hewitt and Flett determined that specific achievement stressors are necessary for self-oriented perfectionism to manifest itself as depression (1996). Both self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism are related to psychological distress in both clinical and non-clinical populations. In contrast, other-oriented perfectionism is sometimes associated with fewer symptoms of depression (Flett et al. 1995), raising the question of how closely other-oriented perfectionism defines the original construct.

The relationship between perfectionism and depressive symptoms has implications for treating maladaptive forms of perfectionism that might contribute to an individual’s depressive state. This study identifies whether perfectionism can serve as a unique main or interactive predictor of depressive symptoms in conjunction with loneliness, and if combating perfectionist tendencies may therefore alleviate these depressive symptoms.

Loneliness

The debilitating emotions present in those suffering from depressive symptoms are also often found in the experience of loneliness. Loneliness is widely agreed to result from a deficiency in an individual’s social relationships. Additionally, loneliness is subjective, and does not reflect the size of one’s social network or their number of associates. Lastly, loneliness is painful and distressing (Peplau and Perlman 1982). Similar to findings for perfectionism, loneliness has been correlated with numerous maladaptive characteristics and negative behavior states including depressive symptoms, suicide, hostility, alcoholism, psychosomatic illnesses, and a poor self-concept (Rokach et al. 2002; McWhirter 1990). Research has focused on studies of personality traits common in lonely people, finding they tend to express attributes of shyness, low levels of assertiveness, and introversion (Bell 1985; Hojat 1982; Jones et al. 1981) in addition to the above-mentioned symptoms and illnesses. Several researchers have attempted to develop measures of loneliness. The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Loneliness Scale (Russell et al. 1980), and its revised version, are widely used measures of individuals’ levels of loneliness.

Loneliness: Link to Negative Outcomes, Including Depressive Symptoms

Empirical data suggests that loneliness is significantly correlated to depressive symptoms (Bradley 1970; Bragg 1979; Hsu et al. 1987) and numerous other negative outcomes. Lonely people have indicated they are less happy, less satisfied, more pessimistic, and suffer from more depressive symptoms (Peplau and Perlman 1982) than people who are not lonely. Lonely individuals have also reported negative behaviors and affective states when experiencing loneliness, including tenseness, restlessness, and boredom. Other studies have indicated that loneliness is also linked to high scores on pessimism, and is negatively correlated with happiness and life-satisfaction (Rokach et al. 2002).

Additional associations between loneliness and depressive symptoms were found in Hsu et al.’s (1987) study of the cultural and emotional components of these two conditions. Findings indicated that depressed clients scored significantly higher on the UCLA Loneliness Scale than non-depressed foreign, American, and Chinese students, indicating a strong relationship between depression and loneliness, regardless of one’s nationality. Depressed individuals also scored significantly higher than both American and Chinese students on Loneliness Anxiety, and Loneliness Depression, subscales of the Belcher Extended Loneliness Scale.

The present study had three distinct purposes. First, it set out to examine the relations of perfectionism and loneliness to depressive symptoms. Second, to examine the associations between perfectionism and loneliness as unique predictors of depressive symptoms. Lastly, it would determine if perfectionism and loneliness interacted to predict depressive symptoms.

Previous research indicates that self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism are positively correlated with depressive symptoms. We predicted a consistent result in the current study. In addition, we predicted loneliness would be positively correlated with depressive symptoms. Since measures of perfectionism and loneliness are distinctly different, we expected that both perfectionism and loneliness would be unique predictors of depressive symptoms. Finally, we expected perfectionism and loneliness would interact to predict depressive symptoms. For example, we expected individuals with high levels of socially prescribed perfectionism and high levels of loneliness to report the greatest number of depressive symptoms.

Few studies have compared loneliness and perfectionism against one another as predictors of depressed symptoms. As expected, unique predictors of depressive symptoms, perfectionism and loneliness have both been associated with many maladaptive behaviors and emotional states. This study empirically tests the correlations between loneliness, perfectionism, and depressive symptoms.

Measures

Depression: The Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et al. 1961) is a 21-item scale used to measure the intensity of depressive symptoms. Scores on each item can range across a four-point scale, for example, 0 = “I do not feel sad,” to 3 = “I am so sad or unhappy that I can’t stand it.” The total inventory score ranges from 0 to 63.

Perfectionism: The MPS is a 45-item measure of perfectionism consisting of three dimensions: Self-Oriented Perfectionism (SOP; e.g., “One of my goals is to be perfect in everything I do.”), Other-Oriented Perfectionism (OOP; e.g., “If I ask someone to do something, I expect it to be done flawlessly.”), and Socially Prescribed Perfectionism (SPP; e.g., The people around me expect me to succeed at everything I do.”). The MPS yields three separate scores for each dimension of perfectionism. Each statement is measured on a seven-point Likert-type scale, from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

Loneliness: The 20-item UCLA Loneliness Scale consists of self-relevant statements that respondents answer on a four-point scale, from 1 (not at all) to 4 (frequently). Half of the item measures are worded to indicate a high level of loneliness, while the other half is worded in the opposite direction, requiring these to be reverse scored. Each participant’s scores are averaged across the 20 items, so scores range from 1 (low loneliness) to 4 (high loneliness).

Procedure: All study measures were administered to participants in the form of a take-home survey that was to be returned the next day of class. Of the initial sample of 100, 11 participants failed to complete all measures, and thus their responses were not analyzed. This left a total of 89 completed responses that were available for subsequent analysis. Participants were not made aware of the purpose of the study until after the study was completed. To protect the participants’ anonymity, only participant numbers were placed on the instruments.

Table 1. Zero-Order Correlations and Internal Reliability Measures for All Studies. *n=89. SOP=Self-oriented perfectionism; OOP=Other-oriented perfectionism; SPP=Socially prescribed perfectionism; LONE=UCLA Loneliness Scale; BDI=Beck Depression Inventory. †p< 0.05. ‡p < 0.01.

In the first regression analysis, only loneliness emerged as a main unique predictor of depressive symptoms, t (84) = 6.30, p = <0.001. The second regression analysis was consistent with the previous regression results, and only loneliness, as measured by the UCLA Loneliness Scale, emerged as a significant main unique predictor of depression, t (84) = 3.57, p = <0.001 (Table 2). Loneliness did not interact with any of the assessed perfectionism variables as a significant predictor of depressive symptoms. However, the interaction between self-oriented perfectionism and loneliness was nearing significance levels (t (81) = 1.90, p = 0.061).

Table 2. Regression Analysis Showing Perfectionism and Loneliness as Main Predictors of Depressive Symptoms *n = 89

The interactive effects of self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism with loneliness did not appear as significant main or interactive predictors of depression. However, the interactive effect of self-oriented perfectionism and loneliness came close to accepted significance levels, t (81) = -1.90, p = .061, suggesting the association between loneliness and depressive symptoms might depend on levels of self-oriented perfectionism. This finding is also consistent with studies demonstrating self-oriented perfectionism is maladaptive, and significantly associated with depressive symptoms (Enns and Cox 1999; Flett et al. 1991; Hewitt and Flett 1991a). Since loneliness has been correlated with measures related to self-oriented perfectionism, such as self-blame, self-deprecation, and social comparison, it might be expected this interaction would be close to accepted significance levels.

Limitations

Several limitations in this study may have produced unexpected correlation and regression analysis results. Hewitt and Flett’s distinctions between self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism can be difficult to decipher. It is unclear whether any or all of these perfectionism dimensions are maladaptive or adaptive, though past research suggests socially prescribed perfectionism is a maladaptive trait, while self-oriented perfectionism is an adaptive one. However, since these two dimensions of perfectionism are often positively correlated with one another, it remains in question exactly how accurately the MPS assesses individuals’ levels of perfectionism. Repeating the current study with the FMPS may help alleviate some problems defining the relationships between perfectionism, loneliness, and depressive symptoms, because it presents clearer distinctions between maladaptive and adaptive dimensions of perfectionism.

Another limitation regards the sample pool. The majority of participants in this study were Caucasian, but research on perfectionism suggests culture factors may have an effect on individuals’ levels of perfectionism. For example, in a study conducted by Chang (1998), Asian-American college students exhibited significantly higher scores in maladaptive perfectionism, and significantly lower scores in adaptive perfectionism than their European-American counterparts. Literature regarding Asian Americans also indicates they are often characterized as expressing excessive perfectionist behaviors in comparison to Caucasian Americans (Yee 1992). Additionally, the sample in this study was biased toward females and expanding the study to a gender-equal sample would contribute to the validity of the results.

The subjects in this study were all recruited from an undergraduate university psychology course. A college-oriented lifestyle may contribute to perfectionist tendencies because of the stresses of both academics and one’s social life. Additional studies should consider measuring perfectionism in older and younger populations. Bandura and Cervone (1986) suggest that perfectionist tendencies may be the result of social learning in children, so the competitiveness of one’s academic environment and perfectionism in an individual’s family would strongly affect if and to what degree an individual is perfectionist. Hence, at different age levels, individuals would be subject to different pressures and exposure to imitative models influencing levels of perfectionism.

Varying perceptions of loneliness can affect tendencies toward negativistic views on life, and affect one’s own self-image and degree of self-criticism. Findings in this study indicate it is important to extend and replicate results with alternative measures of perfectionism (Frost et al. 1990) as well as examine relations between the present variables in different racial and ethnic groups.

The present study also has implications regarding the importance of conducting psychological research comparing the relative predictive power of variables that are associated with similar outcomes. Loneliness and perfectionism have previously been correlated with depressive symptoms. By examining them together, it was possible to identify if one was a more robust predictor of depressive symptoms than the other. Integrating the different lines of research to test for interactive results here provided new insights into the possible relationships between these variables.